The Pensive Warrior

Heroes From History: Frank Howley

Frank L. Howley was an American brigadier general who served during the Cold War and was crucial in saving West Germany from starvation at the hands of a communist blockade. He was born on February 3, 1903 in Hampton, New Jersey. He formed a successful advertising agency and joined the Officer Reserve Corps in 1932 before being pulled into active duty in 1940. An injury would prevent him from finding his way into a combat role. Instead, Howley would go into the U.S. Military Government and play a pivotal role in the Berlin Airlift of 1945.

Restoring France

The United States entered the events of WWII late in the conflict. Frank Howley was already injured and relegated to a non-combat role by this time, although he did take part in the D-Day invasion as military government and re-established local governments following the expulsion of the German occupiers. Howley was specifically tasked with reforming the French government in Cherboug. With the Germans already expelled by the time Howley’s unit arrived, Howley’s earlier missions were largely uncontested. He helped reconstitute and resupply the local French people during their efforts to reform a government after years of occupation by the Germans.

Howley’s unit was known as A1A1. It was a mixed unit of American, British, and French forces. France had been under German occupation and administration since 1940, and there was much work to be done in removing pro-Nazi officials and re-installing local leaders, as well as keeping them supplied. This mission was successful and took Howley to Paris and eventually Barbizon, France. Here, he prepared a mission to establish a government in Berlin after the Germans had surrendered. Given his experience in removing the fascist government in France and installing a republican government with democratic elections, Howley was trusted with doing the same for the American-administrated region of occupied Germany. However, with the threat of the Soviets looming over all of Europe and East Germany under communist control, this task would prove to be a greater challenge.

Ruins of France in 1945 — Much of Europe and Asia was left in ruins following WWII, but the Allies got to work repairing the damage immediately after the surrender of the Axis.

In the Ruins of Berlin

When Howley arrived in Berlin to assist with the reconstitution of government there, he was under a mandate from the Truman administration to work closely with the Soviets and foster an alliance with them. However, the Soviets were already working to expel the Allies from Germany altogether. Howley caught onto this right away and understood that whatever alliance the Allies had with the Soviets would not continue into the post-war era. Howley had to meet regularly with the other commanders of the British, French, and Russian occupation forces. Howley’s informants notified him that General Alexander Kotikov – commander of the Russian occupation – appeared to be making moves to force out the Americans, British, and French sometime soon. For the time being, however, Howley and his unit got to work repairing infrastructure and feeding civilians.

Four Occupation Commanders — Berlin was split between British, American, Russian, and French occupation forces following Germany’s surrender in the Second World War.

Howley wrote in his journal that he came to Berlin under the impression that the Germans would be his enemy on this mission. Nevertheless, with each passing day, it became clearer and clearer to him the Russians would be his true enemy. At first, Howley’s superiors did not listen to his warnings about the Soviet plan to evict the Allies from Berlin. Many still hoped the alliance against the old Axis would last and they refused to give up on the idea, as they were all tired of fighting. Howley was outspoken about the threat from the Russians, however. He trusted his spies and they were telling him that Kotikov had orders direct from Stalin to evict the Allies.

A shadow war of sabotage and subterfuge ensued in the ruins of Berlin between Howley and Kotikov. The Russians made every attempt to undermine the German public’s confidence in the Allies. The goal of the Soviets was to trade one form of socialism for another in Germany in their quest to spread the dark shadow of Marx across the globe. Communist-sympathizing newspapers began to slander Howley, calling him a ‘brute’ and a ‘beast.’ Howley’s family back in the United States also received death threats and harassment by socialist subversives who had infested the American mainland decades prior. The Cold War was already in full swing, although many in the Allies still had not yet come to accept the reality.

The Mask Comes Off

Howley had to contend with his superiors not supporting him for over a year before they came around. Once they did, and the Marshall Plan to rebuild Europe was underway, the Soviets decided to take more decisive measures themselves. On June 24, 1948, the Russians began a blockade of Berlin to try and drive the Allies out for good. They shut down the roads and railways into the city and refused any American or British access. However, Howley was determined to keep the Allied presence in the city and immediately proposed flying in supplies to circumvent the blockade. He told his troops “We’ll starve. We’ll eat rats, rather than quit Berlin!”

With the help of General William Tunner directing the airlift, Howley and his forces began the famous Berlin Airlift. Flying supplies out of Tempelhof Airport, they were initially lifting 4,500 tons of food into the city each day. They had flight rotations going around the clock and were sending in close to 500 planes each day. Stalin did not believe an airlift could save the city, so he ordered the blockade to continue through May 12 of the next year. However, the Allies increased the efficiency of their airlift to bring in 12,000 tons of food each day. Eventually, the Soviets realized the blockade was pointless and called it off. Thus, the people of Berlin were saved from communist starvation.

Frank Howley awarded the rank of general — Frank Howley would rise to the rank of general during the Berlin Airlift.

Hope for the Future

While many others around the globe would not be so lucky, the communist-induced famine in Berlin was prevented and the Cold War against socialism was able to continue. Howley’s insistence on standing firm against the evils of socialism in all its forms gave the people of Berlin a fighting chance. In spite of the pressures exerted on him and his family not only from his well-meaning superiors, but also from communist subversives, Howley stood up for what he knew to be right. Howley’s persistence saved the day back then and still serves as an inspiration for those who continue to face the evils of socialism in the modern era. From Howley’s example, we learn to be brave in the face of subversive attacks and death threats against us and our loved ones. In the end, good will triumph over evil, should we just stay true to ourselves through to the very end.

Frank Howley went on to achieve the rank of general. After retiring from military life, he worked on a farm in West Grove, Pennslyvania. He also served as vice chancellor at New York University for a time. Howley passed away at 90 years old on July 30, 1933 in Warrington, Virginia. He had four children: three sons and a daughter.

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Wrathful Rebels Find No Peace

I fell ill over the weekend and just finished recovering. I tried to still post something, but thinking and typing made me dizzy and cross-eyed. So, I had to wait until now to get back into things. As a result of me falling behind, I will be making two posts this week.

Firstly, I decided to write a brief poem while I finish up my post from last week. This is a soliloquy with 5757 syllables. It is a reflection on Psalm 140. The chapter recounts how wicked men and women devise schemes to go against God and His people, which eventually come back to haunt them. The wicked are a treacherous people who have no loyalty and become their own worst enemies. Due to their inability to stand united, they wicked are inevitably overcome by the righteous.

Evil lurks nearby
Scheming to stir up a war
Darkness in their hearts
Poison dripping from their lips

The righteous rise up
God calls them to fell His foes
Consumed with anger
Evildoers trip themselves

No matter their cries
Evil plans always fall through
The wicked betray
They rebel against the Lord

Allergic to truth
The wicked follow their lies
They walk into doom
Their backs turned against the Lord

Wolves all filled with hate
They rage against righteous men
But to no avail
Wrathful rebels find no peace

Wolves prey on the sheep
Yet the loyal dogs strike back
The wicked wolves flail
The Lord's men jump in the way

The Lord will prevail
His word is eternal truth
The wicked shall fall
Let justice be done on them

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What Is Bravery? – A Haiku Series

What is bravery?
Does bravery make a man?
Can boys be as brave?

Duty calls us all
Paying no heed to the hour
It calls when it must

It calls who it needs
Bravery cares not for age
Duty must be met

At the age of 9, Johnny Clem became one of the youngest veterans to serve in the U.S. Army in a combat role.

The young and old go
Into the fray of conflict
To save what remains

The drums of war sound
A nation in great distress
The time is at hand

A time for courage
For righteous souls to rise up
Wherever they are

What is bravery?
Does it make boys into men?
Some boys are braver

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Iconic Weapons: Gladius Hispaniensis

The gladius Hispaniensis, more commonly referred to as the “gladius” for short, is one of history’s most iconic sword designs. The ancient Romans are well-known for their innovations which perfected the technology of other cultures. The gladius – originally of Spanish design – is a perfect example of this. The Romans adopted the gladius and utilized it to its fullest potential, giving the sword a fearsome reputation around the ancient world which persists to this day.

Variations and Origin

The Roman gladius may be separated into three historical types: the Republican/Fulham, Mainz, and Pompein. The differences between the designs were not so significant, although each was successively shorter than the last. The sword was originally conceived by Spanish tribes of the Iberian Peninsula. The Romans adopted it following the Punic Wars after encountering it in battle and realizing its effectiveness. The gladius eventually replaced the spatha as the weapon of choice for many Roman soldiers who were required to source their own weaponry.

two gladii — The historical gladius was designed to be used in combination with a shield, leaving little room for two hands on the hilt.

The Pompein gladius is reported to have been the most popular variant, as it is the most commonly found at archeological sites. These swords were approximately 60 centimeters in length with blads about 50 centimeters long. The swords were mostly made of iron, but later were made of steel. The hilt was constructed of wood and was often decorated with different types of metal plating. Many officers would have pommels shaped as eagles which could be used to grip the sword with two hands.

Use and Reputation

The gladius was a widely respected and feared weapon among those who found themselves on the receiving end of it. The Romans perfected the use of the gladius by pairing it with the scutum – a large shield. The gladius and scutum would be used in combination to close the distance against opponents with longer blades and pole weapons. With the short blade of the gladius, it was very effective at close range where most battlefield weapons were ineffective due to their longer reach limiting their close-quarters ability. Apart from the Roman Civil Wars which saw soldiers wielding gladii against gladii, the gladius and scutum combination devastated foreign armies all over the world due to the prevalence of long weapons.

The gladius was a hefty sword, weighing an average of 1.5 lbs. It was also quite thick with a 2-inch blade. These qualities made it an excellent chopper, and historians recounted its devastating ability to hack off limbs and heads. It was also adept at thrusting with its double-edged blade coming to a fine point. The short sword was used to stab to the gut and chop at the kneecaps, all with the shield in front to defend. Historians recounted how terrifying the weapon was to face. The gladius and scutum together in the hands of the Romans overcame many conventional armies equipped with long blades and pole weapons, as many soldiers were simply unsure of what to do against the gladius.

1831 French gladius — An 1831-model French infantry sword modeled after the ancient gladius

Legacy of the Gladius

The gladius remains one of the most iconic and popular sword designs to this day. It is also one of the few historical swords which retains some practicality in the modern world. While long swords have fallen out of use due to firearms, there are many situations where short blades are still practical. Although the machete probably takes the top spot as the most common edged weapon still in use today which could arguably be called a sword, a gladius with a two-handed hilt would make a viable alternative. Provided, of course, that one values the double-edged blade which requires more maintenance and care than a single-edged blade.

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Heroes From History: Anthony Wayne

Anthony Wayne was a famous general in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War who was later appointed commander in chief of the United States Army by President George Washington. He was born in Waynesboro, Pennsylvania on January 1, 1745. Perhaps Wayne’s most notable accomplishments were his victory at the Battle of Stony Point during the Revolutionary War and his negotiation of the Treaty of Greenville, ending the Northwest Indian War.

Early Life and Service

Prior to the American Revolutionary War, Anthony Wayne was a surveyor. He was known for traveling to Nova Scotia, Canada to record a description of the land and natural resources there. Later, he returned home and founded both a tannery and a farm. Wayne supported independence and regularly advocated for separation from the British Empire. He briefly served in the Pennsylvania Legislature prior to being commissioned as a colonel in the Continental Army after the war began.

Anthony Wayne’s early military career was defined by several notable defeats. He was first deployed to assist the future traitor, General Benedict Arnold with his army in Canada. Quebec, the fourteenth colony, refused to sign the Declaration of Independence and remained loyal to the British Empire. During the Battle of Trois-Rivières on June 8, 1776, the troops under Wayne’s command successfully skirmished with enemy troops in the swampland. Nevertheless, the rest of the American forces were routed and began to scatter. Wayne quickly switched to supporting the Americans during their withdrawal to provide a fighting retreat. Despite the loss of the battle and the failure of the invasion of Canada, Wayne was commended for his efforts during the campaign. He was then put in command of Fort Ticonderoga and promoted to Brigadier General in 1777.

Anthony Wayne commanded troops at the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, 1777. His forces were tasked with holding the Brandywine River against Hessian troops, and they were successful for a time. However, the German General Wilhelm von Knyphausen eventually managed to flank the Americans and push them back. Wayne again managed to organize a fighting retreat and support the withdrawal. Later that month, he suffered one more defeat during what became known as the Paoli Massacre.

Paoli Massacre — A painting of the Battle of Paoli was commissioned by a British soldier who participated in the event.

On September 20, George Washington sent Wayne to circle around the enemy and counterattack from behind. However, either deserters or captured American couriers informed the British of where Wayne and his men were camped. They lost 158 men when attacked by British General “No Flint” Gray. General Gray earned the name for ordering his men to attack the camp using only with bayonets and swords, or by using their firearms as clubs. In so doing, they managed to go through the camp without alerting the whole American force. General Wayne requested that he be court-martialed for the Paoli Massacre, the number of significant defeats under his belt beginning to weigh heavily on him. He was ultimately acquitted of all charges and commended once again for his leadership, despite the loss of men.

Wayne would quickly be put back into service and take part in the defeat of Continental forces at the Battle of Germantown on October 4, 1777. His troops were reportedly putting heavy pressure on the British and pushing them back. However, partway through the battle, they came under friendly fire. Thinking they were about to be encircled, Wayne ordered a retreat. This cost the Americans their momentum, and ultimately, the battle. Still, Wayne learned much from his early military career. By all accounts, his losses were due to factors outside his control including the overwhelming force of the British Empire’s international coalition and a bit of bad luck. This was something he may not have appreciated at the time, but others such as George Washington recognized his efforts and continued to press him forward.

Learning From Defeat

One of the first major victories of Wayne’s career involved taking over command of General Charles Lee’s troops after he was relieved of command by George Washington at the Battle of Monmouth. Lee was not confident in the Continental Army’s ability to push the British out of New Jersey, and the troops under his charge reflected this perspective. When Washington saw Lee’s troops fleeing from the battle, he removed Lee and split up the general’s forces between the reserve troops under the Marquis de Lafayette and Wayne’s men. Washington then pressed the attack against the British and eventually forced them to retreat to New York. Wayne wished to pursue right away on the following morning, but Washington denied that request in favor of giving everyone the much-needed rest.

A portrait of Anthony Wayne by Edward Savage.

On July 16, 1779, Wayne was dispatched to recapture the fort at Stony Point which had been taken over by the British. He used the tactic General “No Flint” Gray had employed against him during the Paoli Massacre, ordering his troops to advance on the fort using only bayonets. This prevented the whole force from being alerted and putting up a defense. Wayne was shot in the head during the Battle of Stony Point, but he continued to fight and led his troops to victory. For this, he was awarded a gold medal by Congress. General Wayne’s nickname, “Mad” Anthony, had been catching on for some time now and eventually stuck due to his aggressive reputation. This was due in part to George Washington considering him to be rash and impulsive, yet somehow wildly successful. The name also probably first arose from Wayne ordering one of his spies who was arrested to be lashed as punishment, and rumors spreading that Wayne was “mad” about the whole affair.

Still not done, General Wayne had many more exploits throughout the war. He facilitated more fighting retreats and saved Continental troops which would have been routed without his leadership. He also helped foil Benedict Arnold’s plan to betray the Americans and turn over West Point to the British. Wayne was with Washington at the Battle of Yorktown where Cornwallis surrendered and the American Revolutionary War officially came to a close. Wayne achieved the rank of major general before retiring from military service in 1783.

The British Switch to a Proxy War

The Legion of the United States at the Battle of Fallen Timbers

After General Cornwallis’s surrender officially ended the conflict with the American rebels, the British Empire continued to mobilize the Native Americans and Canadians against the United States. Intent on toppling the American government from the shadows, they unofficially supplied the Native Americans and Canadians with weapons and munitions using their network of military forts they retained across the American mainland. This led to the formation of the Northwestern Confederacy – an alliance between the Canadians and Native Americans with shadow support from the British Empire. Thus began the Northwest Indian War which saw the Americans lose many battles in the early days.

In 1792, Wayne was brought out of retirement and put in command of the U.S. Army. Washington hoped he would turn the conflict around which was going poorly, and he would not be disappointed. Wayne spent two years training an army and building forts around the frontier to challenge the British network. His troops came to be known as the “Legion of the United States.” On August 20, 1794, Wayne led the Legion against Native American and Canadian troops under the command of Blue Jacket at the Battle of Fallen Timbers. The result was a decisive victory, forcing the enemy to retreat to Fort Miami.

The Native Americans were not allowed entry to the British fort, and the situation briefly grew tense again when the Americans arrived. Wayne ordered the fort to be vacated, but the British were ready for a fight and refused. Unwilling to push further, the Americans retreated back to Greenville. From there, Wayne began negotiating a peace treaty with the Northwestern Confederacy. On August 3, 1795, the Native American tribes agreed to surrender and the conflict ended. The Americans took Ohio and parts of the surrounding region. The Northwestern Confederacy was a threat no more.

A statue of Anthony Wayne at the Pennsylvania Museum of Art.

Death and Legacy

Anthony Wayne passed away on December 15, 1796. He died from complications with gout. He was originally buried at Fort Presque Isle in Erie, Pennsylvania, but his remains were later moved by his son to his hometown. He was remembered as an impulsive and overly-eager leader, but one whose skill earned him the respect of his peers nonetheless. Mad Anthony Wayne saved numerous American lives throughout his career and played a critical role in ensuring the survival of the young republic he loved so much.

His story also reminds us not to let our past setbacks prevent us from forging ahead. Wayne would have had many detractors in his day due to him presiding over many disastrous occasions, but he was recognized then and now for his valiant efforts in the face of terrible circumstances often outside his control. If we would all do likewise, always giving our best effort and letting happen what may, we may find ourselves remembered in a similar light in not too distant days.

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Skies on Fire

The Battle of Britain was a series of aerial conflicts over Britain from July-September 1940. The German Luftwaffe was tasked with establishing aerial supremacy over Great Britain in preparation for a naval invasion. Adolf Hitler had assumed the British would surrender after their complete evacuation from the European mainland and the capitulation of France. As such, the German army and navy had no plans or preparations for a naval invasion. Only Hermann Göring, Air Marshal of the German Luftwaffe, expressed confidence in attacking Great Britain. With Winston Churchill unwilling to capitulate to German rule of the mainland, it was eventually clear to Hitler that an invasion of Great Britain was necessary to bring hostilities to an end. The only hope for the Germans was to control the air and suppress the British Royal Navy while their troops crossed the channel. As such, the German air force was tasked with suppressing the British Royal Air Force (RAF) to provide safe passage for a vulnerable landing attempt against the superior Royal Navy.

However, things would not go according to plan for the Germans. The British had superior fighter craft and the German attacks were ineffective at thinning out the RAF. Significant casualties were inflicted on the British population as the Germans tried to deteriorate the will of the British people to continue resisting. However, this came at a high cost to German fighters and bombers, resulting in a net loss of equipment. German aircraft were shot down faster than they could be replaced. Unable to reliably down British aircraft, and unable to bomb the population into submission, Hitler eventually called off plans for an invasion of Great Britain and turned instead to invading the Soviet Union. After months of responding to near-constant bombing raids, the RAF outlasted the Luftwaffe and spared the British island from German invasion. Years later, the British coastline would be used to launch Operation Overlord when British, American, and Candian troops would cross the English Channel and turn the tables against the Axis.

Winston Churchill refused to capitulate to Germany or recognize Hitler’s rule over the European mainland.

Over 1,700 RAF aircraft were destroyed during the Battle of Britain with over 1,500 airmen killed. Nearly 50,000 civilians were killed or wounded by the air raids before the German Luftwaffe backed off. The Germans lost almost 2,000 aircraft and over 2,500 airmen before giving up on the offensive.

From the perspective of the Allies, the Battle of Britain was a dark and somber time. The European mainland was ceded completely to the Germans and Soviets. France was under German occupation. The British had abandoned the mainland. To many, the air raids over Britain seemed to be the beginning of the end. Nevertheless, this was not so. The British RAF held their own against the Luftwaffe until the Germans backed off, bringing the people of the Allies some semblance of hope.

Hermann Göring was the leader of the German Air Force during WWII, and the only German military leader with a plan to attack Great Britain.

The world has fallen
Darkness rises over all
Hope begins to fade

Time grinds to halt
The whole world seems to stand still
What will happen next?

A time of monsters
We come to the darkest hour
A time of heroes

German air forces over Britain — The German Luftwaffe attempted to exhaust the British air defenses in preparation for a naval invasion.

Doom is upon us
But the light has not fallen
Brave souls do yet stand

They take to the skies
Demons fly across the sea
And angels meet them

Uncertainty looms
Death rains from skies on fire
People hide below

RAF "Spitfire" — The RAF “Spitfire” was one of the British aircraft which was instrumental in defending against the German air raids.

Flesh and metal grind
The skies fill with flame and blood
With no end in sight

Through struggle they grow
Selfless souls fly into hell
To the stars they go

Their efforts prevail
Day and night, they stay the flame
Taming the dark beast

Civilians in Liverpool — As the air raids dragged on, many British people opted to emerge from their shelters and get on with their lives despite the dangers of the war.

The people hold strong
Across the ages they stand
To meet this moment

The beast wails in pain
Unable to bear the truth
That hope still remains

The beast turns away
Aching from its wounded state
The light still may shine

The RAF was established in WWI. Their motto translates to, “through adversity to the stars” in Latin.

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Summer’s Way: A Haiku Series

Blazing summer days
The cool breeze a friendly kiss
Soothing to the soul

Hot and rainy bouts
A humid embrace lays low
Filling up the air

Warmth touches my soul
Each day a soothing retreat
The sun on my skin

Life is fully grown
Spring's cheer has delivered much
Now we witness joy

All is as should be
Time passes ever onward
Marching with the wind

Cool nights give us rest
From the blazing of the days
Brief, but sweet respite

Blessings come and go
Seasons pass onto the next
Bringing in the new

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The Sword of the Cross

This weekend was the 810th anniversary of the Battle of Las Navas De Tolosa. On July 16th, 1212, the Reconquista defeated the Muslim invaders of Spain and marked a turning point in the liberation of the country. Spain had been occupied by Muslim slavers for five centuries, with a small resistance movement slowly taking back territory in the north bit by bit. After they had liberated half the country, the situation escalated. The Muslims amassed a huge army of volunteers, traitors, and slaves to reinvade northern Spain.

Pope Innocent III received the declaration of war and called for Christian warriors from across the lands to muster for a defense. Thus, a new Crusade began, and Alfonso VIII of Castile took charge of the Reconquista. The Spanish Christians were outnumbered, but better equipped and were volunteers with hearts filled with passion. A force of 12,000 heavily armed and armored warriors stood against the ragtag group of 30,000 scantily clad conscripts. The enemies fell in droves, but their numbers allowed them to withstand such losses.

The Christians eventually grew weary and lost hope. They began to flee, and Alfonso took the initiative to lead a cavalry charge. With their flags bearing the cross and the Son, Alfonso and his men rallied their troops and broke through the Muslim lines. They slaughtered the slave warriors chained together and scattered the rest who could run. The tide was turned and the enemy was routed. This battle was one of the great triumphs of freedom over slavery and it is an inspiring tale to behold.

Terror spreads throughout the land
Fiends pillage and enslave the weak
A great heresy is their marching band
Where they go, havoc does wreak

Yet brave souls prosper to the north
Carrying the sword of the cross
Piece by piece, they move forth
Reclaiming the land that was lost

The slaver king cries out in vain
Against the return of the light
The Lord has come to free the land of Spain
To push out the heretical blight

Hope is kindled near every bend
Light spreads to the darkest corner
A scourge of five centuries comes to an end
The Lord has come to restore His order

The slaver king fumes with rage
Wailing from his throne of flesh and chains
Against the Lord, he sets his cage
With malice flowing through his veins

Alfonso's Cavalry Charge — An artist’s depiction of Alfonso’s cavalry charge against the Muslim slave soldiers.

The heretics know their end draws near
The time for them to drown in shame
The Lord's men come for that most dear
To reclaim the lost land of Spain

Men of God muster from across all the lands
To Crusade once more against the darkness
Pushing back the heretics and slaver bands
The Reconquista comes to redeem us

A force of warrior monks and knights
Volunteers with hearts strong and calm
To battle the slave hordes of Muslim fright
And restore the realm of Christendom

The army of God amassed as one
Met with a sea of demons of all types
Knights in armor shining in the sun
The agents of the Adversary a force of all stripes

Traitors, slaves, and volunteers filled the heretic ranks
Dressed in rags and chains with flesh exposed
Some came willingly, others dragged without thanks
Others came in madness with their minds disposed

The Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa is said to have involved so many men that there was no room for archers.

The light and dark clashed without end in sight
Outnumbered at large was the Army of God
Yet unyielding and undeterred as they kept up the fight
Determined to break the heretics' fascade

A momenet then came
When hope faultered briefly
The army of light flew in shame
As the dark horde stood steeply

But Alfonso stood tall
When he heard that cry of doom
He charged forth without fear nor stall
Into the thick of the blood plume

There was no victory in sight
With the darkness vast and shrill
Though God's men stood still to keep the fight
To embody His everlasting will

Armor clashed against flesh and chain
Freeman against the slave
Fighting for the fate of Spain
For a future bright or grave

King Alfonso VIII — Another depiction of Alfonso’s cavalry charge against the Muslim slave soldiers.

And the light shines in the darkness
Ever bright and ever pure
The darkness shall not overcome His greatness
The future shall at last be secure

At long last the chains did break
And the heretics fell to the sword
Fallen ground was now God's to retake
Freedom was Spain's reward

The Reconquista prevailed
By God's mighty grace
The enemy was assailed
Now peace, Spain may embrace

Praise be to the Lord
He who is never to know loss
He who sends us men of war
Men who wield the sword of the cross

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Historical Events: The Third Great Awakening

The Third Great Awakening was a global religious revival beginning in the United States. The movement lasted from 1855-1930. The focus of the revival was briefly altered by the American Civil War, but the movement was not halted. The Third Great Awakening can be recognized as a distinct social movement from the Second Great Awakening, occurring directly after and as a result of the Second Great Awakening. Whereas the Second Great Awakening was a religious revival across the United States, mainly on the country’s frontiers, the Third Great Awakening was a revival in the cities that spread out to the world and became a global phenomenon. Prominent figures of the Third Great Awakening include Dwight Moody and William J. Seymour, among several others.

Lighting the Lost Cities

Dwight Lyman Moody was working at this uncle’s shoe store when a man named Edward Kimball visited and spoke to Moody about the love of Jesus Christ. This prompted Moody to join Kimball’s Sunday school at Mt. Vernon so he could learn more. Moody shortly thereafter devoted his life to serving God and found his way to the city of Chicago, Illinois where he became involved with the Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA). Moody started his own school known as Moody’s Mission School where he reached out to the youth of the inner city who were lost and confused. He opened the Illinois Street Church in 1864. As his followers grew, more and more people came to hear what he had to say from all over the major city.

Whereas the First and Second Great Awakening were largely born out of the frontiers of the United States – out in the wilderness or small towns – the Third Great Awakening brought religious revival straight to a major city for the first time at the onset. This makes sense, as that was where the need was concentrated during this time, and where a revival could make the biggest difference. The United States had expanded from coast to coast and was on the brink of civil war due to the dehumanization of black slaves. Poverty ran rampant in the major cities and many had turned away from their roots which had built the strong nation. The Third Great Awakening would also be instrumental in seeing the American people through the firestorm which was about to be unleashed.

The Nation Breaks

Stress was at an all-time high across the United States leading up to the outbreak of the American Civil War. Tensions led to physical fights in the halls of Congress. Propaganda efforts went into full swing to justify the enslavement of black Americans and counter the Abolitionist activists. Cooperation between the North and South deteriorated over the issue of slavery. After the North refused to capture and extradite black slaves who had escaped across the border from the South, the Southern States seceded from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America. For a brief time, it seemed as if there might be peace as the nation divorced into two separate countries. However, this did not last, and before long the two sides came to blows at the Battle of Fort Sumter.

Even though this was a tumultuous and divisive time, D.L. Moody saw the mobilization of troops through major cities as an opportunity to spread the word of God. He first preached to Union soldiers at Camp Douglas outside Chicago. His efforts would take him across the country to other cities, military bases, and battlefields. Moody preached to both Union and Confederate troops. He helped to bolster the spirits of the Union troops fighting to end slavery. Moody also served to guide Confederate troops toward reconciliation and to question the cause they were fighting for. Above all, he brought much-needed comfort to the young men and boys suffering on both sides of the battlefield.

The Light Spreads

D.L. Moody continued his work through the end of the American Civil War, returning to his school in Chicago after the cessation of the conflict. After his school was destroyed in the Great Chicago Fire, he took that as a sign to take his mission abroad. Moody traveled across the United Kingdom and Ireland for a brief time before coming back to the United States. During this time, he trained many missionaries who would go out and spread his message of unity among Christians and the bridging of denominational divides. When he returned to the U.S., he began traveling around the country preaching and training new missionaries until he died in 1899. This resulted in missionaries traveling to Europe and Asia, with revivals starting up in Britain and Korea as a result.

Around this time, another prominent figure would undertake a similar journey of training missionaries to travel the globe and spread the word of God. That person was William J. Seymour who began what is referred to as the Asuza Street Revival in 1906. Seymour was a black preacher who drew large crowds of poor, rich, black, white, and everyone in between. As with Moody, many of those who attended Seymour’s sermons became missionaries who would travel abroad. This spread the word of God to Africa and Asia, as well as other parts of the United States. The Manchurian Revival of 1908 may also be considered part of the Third Great Awakening and was affected by these missionaries.

W.J. Seymour was the son of freed black slaves born in the wake of emancipation. He was learning to be a pastor under Charles Parham at a church in Houston, Texas. Here, he was preaching while Neely Terry was visiting from Los Angeles. She was impressed with his speaking ability and his message, and so she invited him to come to L.A. and preach. Seymour accepted and was on his way to California. During this time, there was internal conflict when members of the Holiness Church Association of Southern California rejected his message. However, other members of the community helped Seymour continue to preach by providing him with a place to stay and a new location to meet.

Seymour drew large and diverse crowds, bringing people together in the bitterness of the post-Civil War era. This helped heal the divide in the nation, as many were unhappy about the peace which had been brokered. Also, many struggled to forgive one another after so much blood was shed. The American Civil War was the bloodiest and most socially-destructive conflict in the history of the United States. Family members had been made to hate one another. Neighbors fought and killed each other. Fathers were turned against sons and there were many times when the fragile peace seemed it would be lost and the people would take up arms against their fellow countrymen once more.

However, Seymour’s work served to teach people about the importance of forgiveness. No matter how hard it might have been, the American people would have to make peace with one another or become the architects of their own destruction. As the word of God spread throughout the American people, they stumbled their way into peace, even if they could not forget the horrors they had inflicted on one another. Over time, many also came to see the former black slaves as fellow Americans too, united as one under God. In the end, while resentments and divides would remain, enough was healed in time for the United States to stand as one unified country during the Great War that would become known as World War I and World War II.

The End and the Beginning

The Third Great Awakening overlapped with the Great War. Many consider WWI and WWII to be the same conflict with a 10-year armistice. This was the deadliest armed conflict in human history which culminated with the Axis Powers battling against the Allies for control of the globe. The world shifted and tore itself apart piece by piece. Friends became foes as there were many betrayals and the sides were not so clear. Marxism – the Gnostic ideology which inverted many teachings of the Bible – split into fascism and communism, with the Nazis and the Soviets becoming the most prominent faces of the two new ideologies. Communism stayed true to traditional Marxism, whereas fascism was “Marxism perfected” as Adolf Hitler would say. They were two sides of one coin who both perceived each other as heretics.

The Americans, British, and Nationalist Chinese found themselves in an unlikely alliance with the Soviet Union while the Germans, Japanese, and Italians forged equally perplexing bonds. At this time, most countries on Earth would eventually find themselves in one of the two camps. Perhaps by coincidence, or perhaps not, the countries which were recipients of missionaries from the Third Great Awakening tended to find themselves on the side of the Allies. The unified Americans would produce much of the hardware supplied to the Allies throughout the conflict and would have troops fighting in Europe, Africa, and Asia. Many South Africans, Koreans, and Nationalist Chinese also fought against the Axis Powers alongside the Americans and British. In the wake of the conflict, the Nationalist Chinese would sustain the Republic of China on Taiwan in the face of the red terror from Communist China. The South Koreans would also hold the line decades later against the consuming horde of Communist Chinese, North Koreans, and Soviet tanks.

The Manchurian Revival spread the Third Great Awakening to China and Korea.

A Light Shines Ever In the Dark

The Third Great Awakening was instrumental in both healing and unifying the American people after the bitter American Civil War, and in preparing them for the role they would play in the battles to come. The missionaries produced from the Third Great Awakening also provided connections across the globe which helped shape the alliance which strike down the Axis Powers and stand against the dark specter of Communism left in their place. This prevented the world from being completely consumed for a time and helped to pull the people of Earth out of the dark places made by the horrors of the Great War and Cold War.

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Historical Events: The Second Great Awakening

The Second Great Awakening was a major religious revival in the United States which took place between 1795-1835, spreading to Britain in the final phase. Prominent figures of the Second Great Awakening including individuals such as Barton Stone and Charles Finney, among others. The Second Great Awakening saw many uneducated believers take on leadership roles, advocating for the perspective that anyone of any background could choose to play a major role in spreading God’s word. Additionally, many black Americans became converted as a result of the Second Great Awakening. Over the ensuing decades, this would empower the Abolitionist movement and ultimately lead to the American Civil War.

Origins of the Revival

Following the American Revolution, many American Christians resorted back to their denominational divisions. They had achieved the ultimate goal of the First Great Awakening in the American Revolutionary War, separating from the British Empire and founding a new nation based explicitly on Biblical principles. With peace and independence achieved, the Colonies-turned-States once more became divided. The Articles of Confederation did not create a stable government as the Constitution later would. Also, after justifying armed rebellion against the British crown, armed rebellion was in turn justified against the new American government. Many free and enslaved black Americans had fought in the Revolution based on promises of freedom, liberty, and justice. These promises were unfulfilled due to the economic dependence on slavery in the Southern States.

The Second Great Awakening began with a group of traveling preachers who trekked across the Appalachian frontier at the edge of the United States, but soon moved into the heartland of the young country. Methodist and Baptist groups worked together to bridge the denominational divide which had once again cropped up. They held “camp meetings” or “tent revivals” where large groups of people would come and spend days or weeks camped outside to hear the preachers speak and engage with the sermons. The first of these is said to be the week-long camp meeting in Cane Ridge, Kentucky organized by Barton Stone.

Barton Stone was one of the first to conduct the “camp meetings” of the Second Great Awakening.

Stone’s first camp meeting is said to have been attended by up to 25,000 participants. This would put the number in attendance far above the population of Cane Ridge at the time which was approximately 2,000. If such estimates are correct, people from all over must have traveled to attend the week-long meeting. In the second phase of the Second Great Awakening, Timothy Dwight saw a similar revival at Yale College led by the student body. Dwight was an evangelical and was president at the school. During his time there, he served as a contrast to much of the secular/rationalist thought which was predominant in academia, which was why he expressed surprise at the revival which occurred at the school.

A portrait of Timothy Dwight by John Trumbull.

Message and Spread of the Revival

A different aspect of the Second Great Awakening which set it apart from the first was the engagement of uneducated and illiterate people as spiritual leaders. This included many freed black slaves. “Black Harry” Hosier became the first black Methodist preacher despite being illiterate. This went well with the message of salvation being available to all if they chose it and a rejection of predetermined judgment. The Second Great Awakening sought to ensure people that their salvation was within their power to choose. The usage of uneducated and illiterate preachers drove home the message that anyone could be saved, not just those who had spent decades of their life reading.

Harry Hosier was converted during the Second Great Awakening and became a preacher himself.

The Second Great Awakening served to break down denominational barriers between the Methodists and Baptists. At the start, the Baptists were more decentralized with little structure to their congregations, and the Methodists were highly structured. By working together on this mission, their practices merged and adapted to suit the needs of the people. In the third and final phase of the Second Great Awakening, Charles Finney finally brought the revival all the way to New York and began preaching in the small towns throughout the coastal state. Near the end, Finney preached in major cities in Britain, although it does not appear there were significant effects on history outside the United States from the Second Great Awakening.

Effects of the Second Great Awakening

The Second Great Awakening was critical in American history as a catalyst for the American Civil War. As many of the new converts were freed black slaves, the Second Great Awakening both brought many black Americans into public discourse and forged bonds between white and black Americans regarding a shared vision for the country. As such, ending slavery became on of the broader objectives of the Second Great Awakening. The Abolitionist movement would emerge as a result. In turn, Christians across the country demanded an end to the practice of slavery. This demand led to social unrest, political gridlock, and disillusionment between those who demanded the recognition of the human rights of enslaved peoples and those who denied the humanity of the humans they claimed as property.

The South would eventually secede from the Union and form the Confederacy after the North refused to capture and return escaped slaves who crossed the border into the North. After this peaceful divorce, the North and South were content to go their separate ways for a brief time. However, the issue of who controlled federal land eventually brought the North and South to blows at Fort Sumter when both sides claimed ownership of the military base. While motivations for the American Civil War were greatly varied on both sides, and the Confederacy was originally winning the war with numerous victories, the mandate to free the slaves fostered by the Second Great Awakening kept the Union going long enough for Europe to cut off trade to the South and turn the tide of the war. In the end, the mission of the Second Great Awakening was accomplished.

All posts by The Pen and Sword are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.