I fell ill over the weekend and just finished recovering. I tried to still post something, but thinking and typing made me dizzy and cross-eyed. So, I had to wait until now to get back into things. As a result of me falling behind, I will be making two posts this week.
Firstly, I decided to write a brief poem while I finish up my post from last week. This is a soliloquy with 5757 syllables. It is a reflection on Psalm 140. The chapter recounts how wicked men and women devise schemes to go against God and His people, which eventually come back to haunt them. The wicked are a treacherous people who have no loyalty and become their own worst enemies. Due to their inability to stand united, they wicked are inevitably overcome by the righteous.
Evil lurks nearby Scheming to stir up a war Darkness in their hearts Poison dripping from their lips
The righteous rise up God calls them to fell His foes Consumed with anger Evildoers trip themselves
No matter their cries Evil plans always fall through The wicked betray They rebel against the Lord
Allergic to truth The wicked follow their lies They walk into doom Their backs turned against the Lord
Wolves all filled with hate They rage against righteous men But to no avail Wrathful rebels find no peace
Wolves prey on the sheep Yet the loyal dogs strike back The wicked wolves flail The Lord's men jump in the way
The Lord will prevail His word is eternal truth The wicked shall fall Let justice be done on them
The Roman gladius may be separated into three historical types: the Republican/Fulham, Mainz, and Pompein. The differences between the designs were not so significant, although each was successively shorter than the last. The sword was originally conceived by Spanish tribes of the Iberian Peninsula. The Romans adopted it following the Punic Wars after encountering it in battle and realizing its effectiveness. The gladius eventually replaced the spatha as the weapon of choice for many Roman soldiers who were required to source their own weaponry.
The historical gladius was designed to be used in combination with a shield, leaving little room for two hands on the hilt.
The Pompein gladius is reported to have been the most popular variant, as it is the most commonly found at archeological sites. These swords were approximately 60 centimeters in length with blads about 50 centimeters long. The swords were mostly made of iron, but later were made of steel. The hilt was constructed of wood and was often decorated with different types of metal plating. Many officers would have pommels shaped as eagles which could be used to grip the sword with two hands.
Use and Reputation
The gladius was a widely respected and feared weapon among those who found themselves on the receiving end of it. The Romans perfected the use of the gladius by pairing it with the scutum – a large shield. The gladius and scutum would be used in combination to close the distance against opponents with longer blades and pole weapons. With the short blade of the gladius, it was very effective at close range where most battlefield weapons were ineffective due to their longer reach limiting their close-quarters ability. Apart from the Roman Civil Wars which saw soldiers wielding gladii against gladii, the gladius and scutum combination devastated foreign armies all over the world due to the prevalence of long weapons.
The gladius was a hefty sword, weighing an average of 1.5 lbs. It was also quite thick with a 2-inch blade. These qualities made it an excellent chopper, and historians recounted its devastating ability to hack off limbs and heads. It was also adept at thrusting with its double-edged blade coming to a fine point. The short sword was used to stab to the gut and chop at the kneecaps, all with the shield in front to defend. Historians recounted how terrifying the weapon was to face. The gladius and scutum together in the hands of the Romans overcame many conventional armies equipped with long blades and pole weapons, as many soldiers were simply unsure of what to do against the gladius.
An 1831-model French infantry sword modeled after the ancient gladius
Legacy of the Gladius
The gladius remains one of the most iconic and popular sword designs to this day. It is also one of the few historical swords which retains some practicality in the modern world. While long swords have fallen out of use due to firearms, there are many situations where short blades are still practical. Although the machete probably takes the top spot as the most common edged weapon still in use today which could arguably be called a sword, a gladius with a two-handed hilt would make a viable alternative. Provided, of course, that one values the double-edged blade which requires more maintenance and care than a single-edged blade.
Prior to the American Revolutionary War, Anthony Wayne was a surveyor. He was known for traveling to Nova Scotia, Canada to record a description of the land and natural resources there. Later, he returned home and founded both a tannery and a farm. Wayne supported independence and regularly advocated for separation from the British Empire. He briefly served in the Pennsylvania Legislature prior to being commissioned as a colonel in the Continental Army after the war began.
Anthony Wayne’s early military career was defined by several notable defeats. He was first deployed to assist the future traitor, General Benedict Arnold with his army in Canada. Quebec, the fourteenth colony, refused to sign the Declaration of Independence and remained loyal to the British Empire. During the Battle of Trois-Rivières on June 8, 1776, the troops under Wayne’s command successfully skirmished with enemy troops in the swampland. Nevertheless, the rest of the American forces were routed and began to scatter. Wayne quickly switched to supporting the Americans during their withdrawal to provide a fighting retreat. Despite the loss of the battle and the failure of the invasion of Canada, Wayne was commended for his efforts during the campaign. He was then put in command of Fort Ticonderoga and promoted to Brigadier General in 1777.
Anthony Wayne commanded troops at the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, 1777. His forces were tasked with holding the Brandywine River against Hessian troops, and they were successful for a time. However, the German General Wilhelm von Knyphausen eventually managed to flank the Americans and push them back. Wayne again managed to organize a fighting retreat and support the withdrawal. Later that month, he suffered one more defeat during what became known as the Paoli Massacre.
A painting of the Battle of Paoli was commissioned by a British soldier who participated in the event.
On September 20, George Washington sent Wayne to circle around the enemy and counterattack from behind. However, either deserters or captured American couriers informed the British of where Wayne and his men were camped. They lost 158 men when attacked by British General “No Flint” Gray. General Gray earned the name for ordering his men to attack the camp using only with bayonets and swords, or by using their firearms as clubs. In so doing, they managed to go through the camp without alerting the whole American force. General Wayne requested that he be court-martialed for the Paoli Massacre, the number of significant defeats under his belt beginning to weigh heavily on him. He was ultimately acquitted of all charges and commended once again for his leadership, despite the loss of men.
Wayne would quickly be put back into service and take part in the defeat of Continental forces at the Battle of Germantown on October 4, 1777. His troops were reportedly putting heavy pressure on the British and pushing them back. However, partway through the battle, they came under friendly fire. Thinking they were about to be encircled, Wayne ordered a retreat. This cost the Americans their momentum, and ultimately, the battle. Still, Wayne learned much from his early military career. By all accounts, his losses were due to factors outside his control including the overwhelming force of the British Empire’s international coalition and a bit of bad luck. This was something he may not have appreciated at the time, but others such as George Washington recognized his efforts and continued to press him forward.
Learning From Defeat
One of the first major victories of Wayne’s career involved taking over command of General Charles Lee’s troops after he was relieved of command by George Washington at the Battle of Monmouth. Lee was not confident in the Continental Army’s ability to push the British out of New Jersey, and the troops under his charge reflected this perspective. When Washington saw Lee’s troops fleeing from the battle, he removed Lee and split up the general’s forces between the reserve troops under the Marquis de Lafayette and Wayne’s men. Washington then pressed the attack against the British and eventually forced them to retreat to New York. Wayne wished to pursue right away on the following morning, but Washington denied that request in favor of giving everyone the much-needed rest.
A portrait of Anthony Wayne by Edward Savage.
On July 16, 1779, Wayne was dispatched to recapture the fort at Stony Point which had been taken over by the British. He used the tactic General “No Flint” Gray had employed against him during the Paoli Massacre, ordering his troops to advance on the fort using only bayonets. This prevented the whole force from being alerted and putting up a defense. Wayne was shot in the head during the Battle of Stony Point, but he continued to fight and led his troops to victory. For this, he was awarded a gold medal by Congress. General Wayne’s nickname, “Mad” Anthony, had been catching on for some time now and eventually stuck due to his aggressive reputation. This was due in part to George Washington considering him to be rash and impulsive, yet somehow wildly successful. The name also probably first arose from Wayne ordering one of his spies who was arrested to be lashed as punishment, and rumors spreading that Wayne was “mad” about the whole affair.
Still not done, General Wayne had many more exploits throughout the war. He facilitated more fighting retreats and saved Continental troops which would have been routed without his leadership. He also helped foil Benedict Arnold’s plan to betray the Americans and turn over West Point to the British. Wayne was with Washington at the Battle of Yorktown where Cornwallis surrendered and the American Revolutionary War officially came to a close. Wayne achieved the rank of major general before retiring from military service in 1783.
The British Switch to a Proxy War
The Legion of the United States at the Battle of Fallen Timbers
After General Cornwallis’s surrender officially ended the conflict with the American rebels, the British Empire continued to mobilize the Native Americans and Canadians against the United States. Intent on toppling the American government from the shadows, they unofficially supplied the Native Americans and Canadians with weapons and munitions using their network of military forts they retained across the American mainland. This led to the formation of the Northwestern Confederacy – an alliance between the Canadians and Native Americans with shadow support from the British Empire. Thus began the Northwest Indian War which saw the Americans lose many battles in the early days.
In 1792, Wayne was brought out of retirement and put in command of the U.S. Army. Washington hoped he would turn the conflict around which was going poorly, and he would not be disappointed. Wayne spent two years training an army and building forts around the frontier to challenge the British network. His troops came to be known as the “Legion of the United States.” On August 20, 1794, Wayne led the Legion against Native American and Canadian troops under the command of Blue Jacket at the Battle of Fallen Timbers. The result was a decisive victory, forcing the enemy to retreat to Fort Miami.
The Native Americans were not allowed entry to the British fort, and the situation briefly grew tense again when the Americans arrived. Wayne ordered the fort to be vacated, but the British were ready for a fight and refused. Unwilling to push further, the Americans retreated back to Greenville. From there, Wayne began negotiating a peace treaty with the Northwestern Confederacy. On August 3, 1795, the Native American tribes agreed to surrender and the conflict ended. The Americans took Ohio and parts of the surrounding region. The Northwestern Confederacy was a threat no more.
A statue of Anthony Wayne at the Pennsylvania Museum of Art.
Death and Legacy
Anthony Wayne passed away on December 15, 1796. He died from complications with gout. He was originally buried at Fort Presque Isle in Erie, Pennsylvania, but his remains were later moved by his son to his hometown. He was remembered as an impulsive and overly-eager leader, but one whose skill earned him the respect of his peers nonetheless. Mad Anthony Wayne saved numerous American lives throughout his career and played a critical role in ensuring the survival of the young republic he loved so much.
His story also reminds us not to let our past setbacks prevent us from forging ahead. Wayne would have had many detractors in his day due to him presiding over many disastrous occasions, but he was recognized then and now for his valiant efforts in the face of terrible circumstances often outside his control. If we would all do likewise, always giving our best effort and letting happen what may, we may find ourselves remembered in a similar light in not too distant days.
The Battle of Britain was a series of aerial conflicts over Britain from July-September 1940. The German Luftwaffe was tasked with establishing aerial supremacy over Great Britain in preparation for a naval invasion. Adolf Hitler had assumed the British would surrender after their complete evacuation from the European mainland and the capitulation of France. As such, the German army and navy had no plans or preparations for a naval invasion. Only Hermann Göring, Air Marshal of the German Luftwaffe, expressed confidence in attacking Great Britain. With Winston Churchill unwilling to capitulate to German rule of the mainland, it was eventually clear to Hitler that an invasion of Great Britain was necessary to bring hostilities to an end. The only hope for the Germans was to control the air and suppress the British Royal Navy while their troops crossed the channel. As such, the German air force was tasked with suppressing the British Royal Air Force (RAF) to provide safe passage for a vulnerable landing attempt against the superior Royal Navy.
However, things would not go according to plan for the Germans. The British had superior fighter craft and the German attacks were ineffective at thinning out the RAF. Significant casualties were inflicted on the British population as the Germans tried to deteriorate the will of the British people to continue resisting. However, this came at a high cost to German fighters and bombers, resulting in a net loss of equipment. German aircraft were shot down faster than they could be replaced. Unable to reliably down British aircraft, and unable to bomb the population into submission, Hitler eventually called off plans for an invasion of Great Britain and turned instead to invading the Soviet Union. After months of responding to near-constant bombing raids, the RAF outlasted the Luftwaffe and spared the British island from German invasion. Years later, the British coastline would be used to launch Operation Overlord when British, American, and Candian troops would cross the English Channel and turn the tables against the Axis.
Winston Churchill refused to capitulate to Germany or recognize Hitler’s rule over the European mainland.
Over 1,700 RAF aircraft were destroyed during the Battle of Britain with over 1,500 airmen killed. Nearly 50,000 civilians were killed or wounded by the air raids before the German Luftwaffe backed off. The Germans lost almost 2,000 aircraft and over 2,500 airmen before giving up on the offensive.
From the perspective of the Allies, the Battle of Britain was a dark and somber time. The European mainland was ceded completely to the Germans and Soviets. France was under German occupation. The British had abandoned the mainland. To many, the air raids over Britain seemed to be the beginning of the end. Nevertheless, this was not so. The British RAF held their own against the Luftwaffe until the Germans backed off, bringing the people of the Allies some semblance of hope.
Hermann Göring was the leader of the German Air Force during WWII, and the only German military leader with a plan to attack Great Britain.
The world has fallen Darkness rises over all Hope begins to fade
Time grinds to halt The whole world seems to stand still What will happen next?
A time of monsters We come to the darkest hour A time of heroes
The German Luftwaffe attempted to exhaust the British air defenses in preparation for a naval invasion.
Doom is upon us But the light has not fallen Brave souls do yet stand
They take to the skies Demons fly across the sea And angels meet them
Uncertainty looms Death rains from skies on fire People hide below
The RAF “Spitfire” was one of the British aircraft which was instrumental in defending against the German air raids.
Flesh and metal grind The skies fill with flame and blood With no end in sight
Through struggle they grow Selfless souls fly into hell To the stars they go
Their efforts prevail Day and night, they stay the flame Taming the dark beast
As the air raids dragged on, many British people opted to emerge from their shelters and get on with their lives despite the dangers of the war.
The people hold strong Across the ages they stand To meet this moment
The beast wails in pain Unable to bear the truth That hope still remains
The beast turns away Aching from its wounded state The light still may shine
The RAF was established in WWI. Their motto translates to, “through adversity to the stars” in Latin.
This weekend was the 810th anniversary of the Battle of Las Navas De Tolosa. On July 16th, 1212, the Reconquista defeated the Muslim invaders of Spain and marked a turning point in the liberation of the country. Spain had been occupied by Muslim slavers for five centuries, with a small resistance movement slowly taking back territory in the north bit by bit. After they had liberated half the country, the situation escalated. The Muslims amassed a huge army of volunteers, traitors, and slaves to reinvade northern Spain.
Pope Innocent III received the declaration of war and called for Christian warriors from across the lands to muster for a defense. Thus, a new Crusade began, and Alfonso VIII of Castile took charge of the Reconquista. The Spanish Christians were outnumbered, but better equipped and were volunteers with hearts filled with passion. A force of 12,000 heavily armed and armored warriors stood against the ragtag group of 30,000 scantily clad conscripts. The enemies fell in droves, but their numbers allowed them to withstand such losses.
The Christians eventually grew weary and lost hope. They began to flee, and Alfonso took the initiative to lead a cavalry charge. With their flags bearing the cross and the Son, Alfonso and his men rallied their troops and broke through the Muslim lines. They slaughtered the slave warriors chained together and scattered the rest who could run. The tide was turned and the enemy was routed. This battle was one of the great triumphs of freedom over slavery and it is an inspiring tale to behold.
Terror spreads throughout the land Fiends pillage and enslave the weak A great heresy is their marching band Where they go, havoc does wreak
Yet brave souls prosper to the north Carrying the sword of the cross Piece by piece, they move forth Reclaiming the land that was lost
The slaver king cries out in vain Against the return of the light The Lord has come to free the land of Spain To push out the heretical blight
Hope is kindled near every bend Light spreads to the darkest corner A scourge of five centuries comes to an end The Lord has come to restore His order
The slaver king fumes with rage Wailing from his throne of flesh and chains Against the Lord, he sets his cage With malice flowing through his veins
An artist’s depiction of Alfonso’s cavalry charge against the Muslim slave soldiers.
The heretics know their end draws near The time for them to drown in shame The Lord's men come for that most dear To reclaim the lost land of Spain
Men of God muster from across all the lands To Crusade once more against the darkness Pushing back the heretics and slaver bands The Reconquista comes to redeem us
A force of warrior monks and knights Volunteers with hearts strong and calm To battle the slave hordes of Muslim fright And restore the realm of Christendom
The army of God amassed as one Met with a sea of demons of all types Knights in armor shining in the sun The agents of the Adversary a force of all stripes
Traitors, slaves, and volunteers filled the heretic ranks Dressed in rags and chains with flesh exposed Some came willingly, others dragged without thanks Others came in madness with their minds disposed
The Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa is said to have involved so many men that there was no room for archers.
The light and dark clashed without end in sight Outnumbered at large was the Army of God Yet unyielding and undeterred as they kept up the fight Determined to break the heretics' fascade
A momenet then came When hope faultered briefly The army of light flew in shame As the dark horde stood steeply
But Alfonso stood tall When he heard that cry of doom He charged forth without fear nor stall Into the thick of the blood plume
There was no victory in sight With the darkness vast and shrill Though God's men stood still to keep the fight To embody His everlasting will
Armor clashed against flesh and chain Freeman against the slave Fighting for the fate of Spain For a future bright or grave
Another depiction of Alfonso’s cavalry charge against the Muslim slave soldiers.
And the light shines in the darkness Ever bright and ever pure The darkness shall not overcome His greatness The future shall at last be secure
At long last the chains did break And the heretics fell to the sword Fallen ground was now God's to retake Freedom was Spain's reward
The Reconquista prevailed By God's mighty grace The enemy was assailed Now peace, Spain may embrace
Praise be to the Lord He who is never to know loss He who sends us men of war Men who wield the sword of the cross
The Third Great Awakening was a global religious revival beginning in the United States. The movement lasted from 1855-1930. The focus of the revival was briefly altered by the American Civil War, but the movement was not halted. The Third Great Awakening can be recognized as a distinct social movement from the Second Great Awakening, occurring directly after and as a result of the Second Great Awakening. Whereas the Second Great Awakening was a religious revival across the United States, mainly on the country’s frontiers, the Third Great Awakening was a revival in the cities that spread out to the world and became a global phenomenon. Prominent figures of the Third Great Awakening include Dwight Moody and William J. Seymour, among several others.
Lighting the Lost Cities
Dwight Lyman Moody was working at this uncle’s shoe store when a man named Edward Kimball visited and spoke to Moody about the love of Jesus Christ. This prompted Moody to join Kimball’s Sunday school at Mt. Vernon so he could learn more. Moody shortly thereafter devoted his life to serving God and found his way to the city of Chicago, Illinois where he became involved with the Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA). Moody started his own school known as Moody’s Mission School where he reached out to the youth of the inner city who were lost and confused. He opened the Illinois Street Church in 1864. As his followers grew, more and more people came to hear what he had to say from all over the major city.
A portrait of Dwight Lyman Moody
Whereas the First and Second Great Awakening were largely born out of the frontiers of the United States – out in the wilderness or small towns – the Third Great Awakening brought religious revival straight to a major city for the first time at the onset. This makes sense, as that was where the need was concentrated during this time, and where a revival could make the biggest difference. The United States had expanded from coast to coast and was on the brink of civil war due to the dehumanization of black slaves. Poverty ran rampant in the major cities and many had turned away from their roots which had built the strong nation. The Third Great Awakening would also be instrumental in seeing the American people through the firestorm which was about to be unleashed.
The Nation Breaks
Stress was at an all-time high across the United States leading up to the outbreak of the American Civil War. Tensions led to physical fights in the halls of Congress. Propaganda efforts went into full swing to justify the enslavement of black Americans and counter the Abolitionist activists. Cooperation between the North and South deteriorated over the issue of slavery. After the North refused to capture and extradite black slaves who had escaped across the border from the South, the Southern States seceded from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America. For a brief time, it seemed as if there might be peace as the nation divorced into two separate countries. However, this did not last, and before long the two sides came to blows at the Battle of Fort Sumter.
Even though this was a tumultuous and divisive time, D.L. Moody saw the mobilization of troops through major cities as an opportunity to spread the word of God. He first preached to Union soldiers at Camp Douglas outside Chicago. His efforts would take him across the country to other cities, military bases, and battlefields. Moody preached to both Union and Confederate troops. He helped to bolster the spirits of the Union troops fighting to end slavery. Moody also served to guide Confederate troops toward reconciliation and to question the cause they were fighting for. Above all, he brought much-needed comfort to the young men and boys suffering on both sides of the battlefield.
The Light Spreads
D.L. Moody continued his work through the end of the American Civil War, returning to his school in Chicago after the cessation of the conflict. After his school was destroyed in the Great Chicago Fire, he took that as a sign to take his mission abroad. Moody traveled across the United Kingdom and Ireland for a brief time before coming back to the United States. During this time, he trained many missionaries who would go out and spread his message of unity among Christians and the bridging of denominational divides. When he returned to the U.S., he began traveling around the country preaching and training new missionaries until he died in 1899. This resulted in missionaries traveling to Europe and Asia, with revivals starting up in Britain and Korea as a result.
Around this time, another prominent figure would undertake a similar journey of training missionaries to travel the globe and spread the word of God. That person was William J. Seymour who began what is referred to as the Asuza Street Revival in 1906. Seymour was a black preacher who drew large crowds of poor, rich, black, white, and everyone in between. As with Moody, many of those who attended Seymour’s sermons became missionaries who would travel abroad. This spread the word of God to Africa and Asia, as well as other parts of the United States. The Manchurian Revival of 1908 may also be considered part of the Third Great Awakening and was affected by these missionaries.
A photograph of William J. Seymour
W.J. Seymour was the son of freed black slaves born in the wake of emancipation. He was learning to be a pastor under Charles Parham at a church in Houston, Texas. Here, he was preaching while Neely Terry was visiting from Los Angeles. She was impressed with his speaking ability and his message, and so she invited him to come to L.A. and preach. Seymour accepted and was on his way to California. During this time, there was internal conflict when members of the Holiness Church Association of Southern California rejected his message. However, other members of the community helped Seymour continue to preach by providing him with a place to stay and a new location to meet.
Seymour drew large and diverse crowds, bringing people together in the bitterness of the post-Civil War era. This helped heal the divide in the nation, as many were unhappy about the peace which had been brokered. Also, many struggled to forgive one another after so much blood was shed. The American Civil War was the bloodiest and most socially-destructive conflict in the history of the United States. Family members had been made to hate one another. Neighbors fought and killed each other. Fathers were turned against sons and there were many times when the fragile peace seemed it would be lost and the people would take up arms against their fellow countrymen once more.
However, Seymour’s work served to teach people about the importance of forgiveness. No matter how hard it might have been, the American people would have to make peace with one another or become the architects of their own destruction. As the word of God spread throughout the American people, they stumbled their way into peace, even if they could not forget the horrors they had inflicted on one another. Over time, many also came to see the former black slaves as fellow Americans too, united as one under God. In the end, while resentments and divides would remain, enough was healed in time for the United States to stand as one unified country during the Great War that would become known as World War I and World War II.
The End and the Beginning
The Third Great Awakening overlapped with the Great War. Many consider WWI and WWII to be the same conflict with a 10-year armistice. This was the deadliest armed conflict in human history which culminated with the Axis Powers battling against the Allies for control of the globe. The world shifted and tore itself apart piece by piece. Friends became foes as there were many betrayals and the sides were not so clear. Marxism – the Gnostic ideology which inverted many teachings of the Bible – split into fascism and communism, with the Nazis and the Soviets becoming the most prominent faces of the two new ideologies. Communism stayed true to traditional Marxism, whereas fascism was “Marxism perfected” as Adolf Hitler would say. They were two sides of one coin who both perceived each other as heretics.
The Americans, British, and Nationalist Chinese found themselves in an unlikely alliance with the Soviet Union while the Germans, Japanese, and Italians forged equally perplexing bonds. At this time, most countries on Earth would eventually find themselves in one of the two camps. Perhaps by coincidence, or perhaps not, the countries which were recipients of missionaries from the Third Great Awakening tended to find themselves on the side of the Allies. The unified Americans would produce much of the hardware supplied to the Allies throughout the conflict and would have troops fighting in Europe, Africa, and Asia. Many South Africans, Koreans, and Nationalist Chinese also fought against the Axis Powers alongside the Americans and British. In the wake of the conflict, the Nationalist Chinese would sustain the Republic of China on Taiwan in the face of the red terror from Communist China. The South Koreans would also hold the line decades later against the consuming horde of Communist Chinese, North Koreans, and Soviet tanks.
The Manchurian Revival spread the Third Great Awakening to China and Korea.
A Light Shines Ever In the Dark
The Third Great Awakening was instrumental in both healing and unifying the American people after the bitter American Civil War, and in preparing them for the role they would play in the battles to come. The missionaries produced from the Third Great Awakening also provided connections across the globe which helped shape the alliance which strike down the Axis Powers and stand against the dark specter of Communism left in their place. This prevented the world from being completely consumed for a time and helped to pull the people of Earth out of the dark places made by the horrors of the Great War and Cold War.
The Second Great Awakening was a major religious revival in the United States which took place between 1795-1835, spreading to Britain in the final phase. Prominent figures of the Second Great Awakening including individuals such as Barton Stone and Charles Finney, among others. The Second Great Awakening saw many uneducated believers take on leadership roles, advocating for the perspective that anyone of any background could choose to play a major role in spreading God’s word. Additionally, many black Americans became converted as a result of the Second Great Awakening. Over the ensuing decades, this would empower the Abolitionist movement and ultimately lead to the American Civil War.
Origins of the Revival
Following the American Revolution, many American Christians resorted back to their denominational divisions. They had achieved the ultimate goal of the First Great Awakening in the American Revolutionary War, separating from the British Empire and founding a new nation based explicitly on Biblical principles. With peace and independence achieved, the Colonies-turned-States once more became divided. The Articles of Confederation did not create a stable government as the Constitution later would. Also, after justifying armed rebellion against the British crown, armed rebellion was in turn justified against the new American government. Many free and enslaved black Americans had fought in the Revolution based on promises of freedom, liberty, and justice. These promises were unfulfilled due to the economic dependence on slavery in the Southern States.
Barton Stone was one of the first to conduct the “camp meetings” of the Second Great Awakening.
Stone’s first camp meeting is said to have been attended by up to 25,000 participants. This would put the number in attendance far above the population of Cane Ridge at the time which was approximately 2,000. If such estimates are correct, people from all over must have traveled to attend the week-long meeting. In the second phase of the Second Great Awakening, Timothy Dwight saw a similar revival at Yale College led by the student body. Dwight was an evangelical and was president at the school. During his time there, he served as a contrast to much of the secular/rationalist thought which was predominant in academia, which was why he expressed surprise at the revival which occurred at the school.
A portrait of Timothy Dwight by John Trumbull.
Message and Spread of the Revival
A different aspect of the Second Great Awakening which set it apart from the first was the engagement of uneducated and illiterate people as spiritual leaders. This included many freed black slaves. “Black Harry” Hosier became the first black Methodist preacher despite being illiterate. This went well with the message of salvation being available to all if they chose it and a rejection of predetermined judgment. The Second Great Awakening sought to ensure people that their salvation was within their power to choose. The usage of uneducated and illiterate preachers drove home the message that anyone could be saved, not just those who had spent decades of their life reading.
Harry Hosier was converted during the Second Great Awakening and became a preacher himself.
The Second Great Awakening served to break down denominational barriers between the Methodists and Baptists. At the start, the Baptists were more decentralized with little structure to their congregations, and the Methodists were highly structured. By working together on this mission, their practices merged and adapted to suit the needs of the people. In the third and final phase of the Second Great Awakening, Charles Finney finally brought the revival all the way to New York and began preaching in the small towns throughout the coastal state. Near the end, Finney preached in major cities in Britain, although it does not appear there were significant effects on history outside the United States from the Second Great Awakening.
Effects of the Second Great Awakening
The Second Great Awakening was critical in American history as a catalyst for the American Civil War. As many of the new converts were freed black slaves, the Second Great Awakening both brought many black Americans into public discourse and forged bonds between white and black Americans regarding a shared vision for the country. As such, ending slavery became on of the broader objectives of the Second Great Awakening. The Abolitionist movement would emerge as a result. In turn, Christians across the country demanded an end to the practice of slavery. This demand led to social unrest, political gridlock, and disillusionment between those who demanded the recognition of the human rights of enslaved peoples and those who denied the humanity of the humans they claimed as property.
The South would eventually secede from the Union and form the Confederacy after the North refused to capture and return escaped slaves who crossed the border into the North. After this peaceful divorce, the North and South were content to go their separate ways for a brief time. However, the issue of who controlled federal land eventually brought the North and South to blows at Fort Sumter when both sides claimed ownership of the military base. While motivations for the American Civil War were greatly varied on both sides, and the Confederacy was originally winning the war with numerous victories, the mandate to free the slaves fostered by the Second Great Awakening kept the Union going long enough for Europe to cut off trade to the South and turn the tide of the war. In the end, the mission of the Second Great Awakening was accomplished.
The First Great Awakening was a spiritual revival which began as early as the 1720s in England and the Colonies, continuing on to as late as the 1760s. The movement is primarily recognized as having taken place in the 1730s and 1740s. Prominent figures in the First Great Awakening included George Whitefield, John Wesley, and Jonathan Edwards, among others. The First Great Awakening was critical to inoculating English communities from the devastating ideas of the proto-communist French Revolution which led to the Reign of Terror and ultimately, communism itself in the centuries to come. The First Great Awakening was also instrumental in preparing the Colonies to unite against the British crown under the word of God and birth the new nation of the United States.
Fall From Grace
The Enlightenment brought the world out of medieval times and into the Renaissance Era. Scientific discoveries and advancements in technology led to dramatic improvements in quality of life. Material conditions had never been better. This was the end Middle Ages and the beginning of the Age of Reason. It was a tremendous triumph for Humanity, but as with many things, it was taken too far. Excesses and complacency led humans astray once more, and people began to turn away from God as they put their faith in science as the be-all-end-all. This set the stage for the wars to come, but not all would be cast into the fire. There were a few brave souls who went against the excesses of the fleshy world and turned back to the Bible just before judgement swept across the globe, saving many others in their efforts.
Awakening in England
In England, John Wesley was born in 1703 to a large Christian family. His house was burned down by an anti-Christian mob when he was young, but he was saved from the fire and went on to continue studying scripture. He attended Oxford university and started the “Holy Club” with his brother. Wesley became a preacher and sailed to Georgia on a mission to convert the Native Americans to the word of God. Meeting little success at the time, he returned to England and attended a Moravian meeting in which a Lutheran commentary was being read. Wesley experienced a change in himself upon contemplating the words on how faith and complete trust in Christ is a force for personal renewal. After this, John Wesley traveled around the British Isles preaching the message he had received of salvation through Christ’s word alone. While he was shunned by many churches for preaching a personal relationship with God instead of an indirect relationship through the church leader, Wesley nevertheless drew large crowds speaking outside churches and in open fields.
A painting of John Wesley by the painter, George Romney.
Meanwhile, George Whitefield was also coming up as a prominent figure of the First Great Awakening in England. Whitefield was born in 1714 and lived a non-believer’s life during his youth. Whitefield noted that when he was young, he was a vile and foul individual who reveled in worldly pleasures. However, Whitefield attended Oxford and became a member of Wesley’s Holy Club. With this, his own personal awakening began and he wrote that one night in 1735 he awoke and cried out for salvation from the burdens of sin he felt weighing so heavily upon him. From that moment forward, he was a changed man, becoming an Anglican priest the following year. He then traveled to Georgia and founded an orphanage before returning to England to preach there again. However, Whitefield also found many of the old guard of the church shunning him and closing their doors to him, forbidding him from preaching to their congregations. Nevertheless, Whitefield drew even larger crowds for his sermons outdoors and in massive fields.
A painting of George Whitefield by the painter, Joseph Badger which shows Whitefield’s cross-eyed vision.
Unification of the Colonies
The British Colonies were deeply divided among their different denominations. They squabbled over doctrinal differences in how they interpreted the Bible, and this prevented them from uniting as one Christian nation. However, Jonathan Edwards was born in 1704 and would become a uniting force for the budding American Colonies. Edwards attended Yale and became an assistant minister in the town of Northampton, Massachusetts under his grandfather. When his grandfather died, Edwards had to step up and take over as the only minister of the then second-largest church in the Colonies. He handled this position so well he was called upon to deliver a lecture at a commencement ceremony at Harvard in 1731. He preached his famous sermon, “God Glorified in the Work of Redemption” to a crowd far older and more experienced than he.
A portrait of Jonathan Edwards
Edwards continued to preach in Northampton, and there was a change which occurred in the surrounding towns. Edwards chronicled this mass of conversions in his book, A Faithful Narrative of the Surprising Work of God in the Conversion of Many Hundred Souls in Northampton and in the Neighboring Towns. Around this time, Wesley and Whitefield were doing their corresponding work in the mother country. They continued for some time, and Edwards gave one of his most famous sermons in 1741 after another preacher fell ill and he was called upon to fill the spot. That sermon was “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God” in which the crowd notably became hysterical and cried out at numerous times throughout Edwards’ sermon. When the crowd became too loud, he patiently waited for them to calm back down before continuing.
New Lights and Old Lights
As mentioned, many of the old guard of the church who had become accustomed to the intermediary relationship they served between God and their followers were perturbed by the urging of men like Wesley, Whitefield, and Edwards for people to read the Bible themselves and form a personal relationship with God. Whitefield and Wesley were the target of numerous assassination attempts, none of which succeeded. Those who wished to stop the spiritual revival became known as the “Old Lights,” and those who wished to foster the awakening in the people were known as the “New Lights.” Many were inspired to abandon their different denominations and unify as Christians under one God after hearing the sermons of the New Lights. This was true even among the diverse and distinct Colonies.
An undated engraving of George Whiteman preaching sourced from Encyclopedia Britannica
Even Benjamin Franklin, who was a notorious skeptic of the Christianity, was moved by one of Whitefield’s sermons in Philadelphia. Ben Franklin noted that following the preaching of the New Lights, it was as if life had returned to the towns which had fallen silent. People could be seen once again filled with joy and a renewed sense of purpose in places where it seemed hope was fading. The Colonies, which previously viewed themselves as distinct entities with little in common, began to unite under one banner, as one people. After that, they began to demand the freedom and liberty from the British crown which they felt was promised to them by God. One motto of the American Revolution rebuking King George III which swept across the new nation exclaimed, “No King but King Jesus.”
A Storm Sweeps the Earth
Many today may assume what is now known as “World War I” was the first world war ever seen on Earth. I would argue this is not so accurate. World War I – referred to as the “Great War” at the time – is referred to as such due to World War II being seen as a continuation of the Great War with a 10-year armistice. However, there have been several world wars beyond those of the 20th century. One such world war was the series of conflicts known as the Napoleonic Wars. This world war was incredibly complex, but was at least in part precipitated by Britain’s tensions with France, as well as the infamous French Revolution giving rise to a brutal, expansionist French state.
As mentioned, the First Great Awakening had the obvious influence of unifying the American Colonies under one banner and reigniting the passion for obedience to God among the newly formed American people. The Declaration of Independence asserted the God-given rights of the people which were being infringed upon by the British crown, and that the people would stand for it no longer. However, one protective factor of the First Great Awakening which is less mentioned is how it safeguarded the people of England against the kind of radical secularism which took root in France. This fervent rebellion against God led to the Reign of Terror among the French people, and the ideas spawned from this movement eventually gave birth to revolutionary communism, resulting in tremendous losses of life over the centuries which continue to this day.
Even though the British lost control of the American Colonies, they arose triumphant in the Napoleonic Wars and regained significant influence over the globe once more. This stopped the French proto-communists from taking over the globe, even though their ideas would spread and later give rise to the Soviet Union. The British population was also spared from the kind of ruthless self-depopulation which characterized the proto-communist French Revolution. Of course, the Napoleonic Wars are a story of their own worth telling, though that is a tale for another time. For the time being, the world was spared complete oblivion due in no small part to the First Great Awakening.
The Pensive Warrior 